Digital Diplomacy and Its Role in Achieving States’ Foreign Policy Objectives: A Legal and Analytical Study

Digital Diplomacy and Its Role in Achieving States’ Foreign Policy Objectives: A Legal and Analytical Study دور الدبلوماسية الرقمية في تحقيق أهداف السياسة الخارجية للدول : دراسة قانونية تحليلية KABOUCHE Seif-Eddine Faculty of law, Constantine 1 Brothers Mentouri University (Algeria) Laboratory of Contracts and Business Law Laboratory [email protected] Date of Submission 02-04-2026 Date of Final Acceptance 11-08-2026 Date of Publication September 2026 Abstract: Developments in information and communication technology (ICT) have significantly influenced various aspects of life, including their impact on diplomatic activity and the management of international relations. As a result of this influence, there has been a transition from traditional diplomacy to digital diplomacy, the latter relies on the use of modern tools that primarily rely on the advancements achieved in the field of media and communication technology. International interest in using digital diplomacy tools has increased in the interaction of diplomatic relations parties with each other and in communicating with domestic and international public opinion, alongside the impact of these developments extending to political decision-making within countries and their foreign policy in managing relations with other international actors, as well as in formulating, following up, and implementing their foreign policies to achieve the strategic objectives of their foreign policy while ensuring their national interests. Keywords: Digital diplomacy; Foreign policy; Strategic objectives; National interests. ملخص: أثرت التطورات في مجال تكنولوجيا الإعالم والاتصال في مختلف نواحي الحياة، بما في ذلك تأثيرها على النشاط الدبلوماس ي و إدارة العالقات الدولية، ونتيجة لهذا التأثير تم الانتقال من الدبلوماسية التقليدية إلى الدبلوماسية الرقمية، هاته ألاخيرة التي تقوم على استخدام أدوات حديثة تعتمد باألساس على ما توصل إليه العلم من تطورات في مجال تكنولوجيا الإعالم و الاتصال، حيث تزايد الاهتمام الدولي باستخدام أدوات الدبلوماسية الرقمية في تفاعل أطراف العالقات الدبلوماسية مع بعضها البعض و التواصل مع الرأي العام الداخلي و الدولي، إلى جانب تأثير تلك التطورات لتشمل صنع القرار السياس ي داخل الدول و سياستها الخارجية في إدارة عالقاتها مع باقي الفواعل الدولية، و كذا في صنع و متابعة و تنفيذ سياساتها الخارجية، لتحقيق ألاهداف الاستراتيجية لسياستها الخارجية و ضمان مصالحها الوطنية. الكلمات المفتاحية: الدبلوماسية الرقمية؛ السياسة الخارجية؛ ألاهداف الاستراتيجية؛ مصالح وطنية. * Corresponding Author: KABOUCHE Seif-Eddine

: Diplomacy has been closely linked to the existence of states and major ancient cities throughout the various eras of human history, as there has been a need and communal interest among these states to organize their mutual interests. Consequently, various forms and types of diplomatic work have emerged throughout history, known as temporary diplomacy, also referred to as ad hoc or occasional diplomacy. Over time, diplomacy evolved into its modern form, recognized as permanent diplomacy. Since then, diplomacy has become one of the principle means of organizing foreign relations among members of the international community, with the primary objective of safeguarding common interests. Recent technological advancements, particularly in the field of information and communication technology, have profoundly impacted all aspects of life, especially international relations and diplomacy. These developments have transformed diplomatic practice from traditional diplomacy to digital diplomacy, which represents a revolution in the field of international relations. The latter relies on modern tools primarily based on ICT to facilitate interaction among diplomatic actors and enhance communication with both domestic and international public opinion. Moreover, the impact of advancements in ICT has extended beyond diplomatic practice and the management of international relations. It has also influenced political decision-making within states and the conduct of their foreign policies in managing relations with other countries and international organizations. Through the use of digital diplomacy tools governments are able to formulate, monitor, and implement their foreign policies more effectively, thereby advancing the strategic objectives of their foreign policy while safeguarding their national interests. The importance of studying: this topic lies in both its academic and practical dimensions. From an academic perspective, this study seeks to examine the concept of digital diplomacy, explore the circumstances surrounding its emergence and development, and identify its principal tools and mechanisms. From a practical perspective, it aims to highlight the role of digital diplomacy in achieving the foreign policy objectives of states in pursuit of their national interests. In addition, the study examines the various challenges confronting digital diplomacy and explores potential solutions to enhance its effectiveness in fulfilling its intended objectives. Given the significance of this topic, the present study seeks to address the following research question: To what extent does digital diplomacy contribute to achieving states’s foreign policy objectives within the framework of contemporary international law? To adress the research question, the present study adopts the descriptive approach to define the concept of digital diplomacy and examine its characteristics and objectives. The analytical approach was also employed to analyze the relationship between the use of digital platforms in diplomatic practice and the achievement of states foreign policy objectives. In order to answer the research question, the study is divided into two main sections. The first section discusses the concept and nature of digital diplomacy, while the second section explores the role of digital diplomacy in achieving the foreign policy objectives of states.

Diplomacy is as old as human civilization itself. Since ancient times, cities and societies have established external relations with one another based on shared interests giving rise to various forms of diplomatic interaction throughout different periods of human history. Today, diplomacy holds significant importance as it continues to occupy a central position in international relations and foreign affairs across their political, economic, social, and cultural dimensions. This is reflected in the willingness of states within the international community to establish diplomatic relations and exchange representative missions with one another.

Despite the numerous transformations that diplomacy has andergone, the most significant development shaping its contemporary form has emerged during the last decade as a result of the profound changes brought about by advances in Information and Communication Technology (ICT). As a consequence, most countries now compete to achieve leadership in science and technology while increasingly relying on digital diplomacy as a key instrument for conducting their foreign policy and managing their international relations. Accordingly, this section aims to clarify the concept of digital diplomacy and its advantages and disadvantages, it also explores the principal tools of digital diplomacy and the objectives it seeks to achieve. A) The Concept of Digital Diplomacy, Its Advantages and Disadvantages Diplomacy has undergone numerous developments throughout different historical eras. It has evolved alongside the development of human societies, from the earliest forms of interaction and communication between communities to its contemporary practice. One of the most significant developments that has influenced diplomacy is the advancement ICT, which has led to the emergence of what is now known as digital diplomacy. This evolution has prompted countries to exploit this technological advancement in diplomatic work. The adoption of digital diplomacy has brought about both significant advantages and notable disadvantages. These aspects are examined in the following discussion.

To arrive at a precise and comprehensive understanding of the concept of digital diplomacy, it is first necessary to examine the concept of diplomacy itself and the historical context surrounding its emergence. I.1. Historical Background of the Emergence of Digital Diplomacy Scholars in ancient history suggest that early civilizations established relations of an international character. However, these relationships were primarily governed by religious rules, customs, and the principle of reciprocity, unlike the contemporary international system, relations are regulated by binding legal principles of international law1. The term “diplomacy" originates from the Greek word “diploma”, which referred to an official document issued by the authorities granting its bearer certain privileges2. This word was adopted later by the Romans to describe folded metal documents, such as passports and official certificates3. From Greek, the term passed into Latin and subsequently into English and French. Nevertheless, the word "diplomacy" did not acquire its modern meaning until the late seventeenth century, specifically after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which established the concept of permanent representation among states, giving rise to the modern practice of maintaining permanent diplomatic missions entrusted with representing states' interests, conducting negotiations on their behalf, expressing their positions, and defending their views before foreign governments4. Diplomacy has also been profoundly influenced by developments in technology and the media. In particular, the press, along with other forms of mass media, especially radio and television, has become a significant factor shaping international relations in the contemporary world. The primary goal of the press is to convey information to an educated public by disseminating information, distinguishing it from propaganda, whose principal objective is to influence public opinion in a manner that serves specific political or ideological goals5. In this context, the United States has employed various media instruments as part of its public diplomacy strategy, most notably the establishment of Alhurra TV and Radio Sawa, two Arabic-language media outlets established to

engage with Arab and Muslim public opinion and promote U.S. perspectives on regional and international issues6. Furthermore, the transformations brought about by the information revolution have redefined the nature of diplomacy, distinguishing digital diplomacy from its traditional counterpart. According to Jordan Smith, digital diplomacy is the art of advancing and safeguarding national interests through the exchange of information among governments, states, and other actors7. Some studies have traced early emergence of digital diplomacy to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, where the international community exchanged numerous electronic messages regarding the environmental threats facing the planet. Another landmark event was the WikiLeaks disclosures of 2010, which attracted worldwide attention following the publication of approximately 250,000 diplomatic cables, demonstrating the profound impact of digital communication on diplomatic affairs. Other scholars and diplomats argue that the roots of digital diplomacy can also be traced to the Arab Spring of 2011, when activists used social media to broadcast live footage documenting the excessive use of force by security and military forces against demonstrators protesting ruling regimes8. These developments underscored the growing role of digital technologies and online communication in shaping diplomatic engagement and international public opinion. Today, new technologies have become indispensable instruments of diplomatic practice and an integral part of the agendas of international policymakers, influencing the diplomatic environment. In the digital age, diplomacy is increasingly characterized by diplomats' use of electronic communication tools which is a practice commonly referred to as “digital diplomacy”. It also encompasses discussions on the development of emerging technologies and their implications as part of the diplomatic agenda, as well as the ways in which these technologies have redefined international cooperation through what is known as digital cooperation. The concept and practice of digital diplomacy were first formally articulated in 2001, marking the beginning of its recognition as a distinct dimension of contemporary diplomatic engagement9. I.2. Definition of Digital Diplomacy Digital Diplomacy olso referred to as E-Diplomacy represents a new form of diplomacy that has emerged in the information age, It is founded on communication and interaction not only among diplomats themselves but also between diplomats and users of the Internet and digital communication platforms10. Digital diplomacy refers to the application of information and communication technologies to diplomatic practice, particularly through the use of social media platforms11. As a form of public diplomacy, it involves the use of digital technologies and social networking platforms, such as Twitter and Facebook, by states to engage with domestic and international audiences in an efficient and cost- effective manner12. It is important, however, to approach the need for caution when dealing with the concept of digital diplomacy. Digital diplomacy should not be understood merely as the creation of official websites or social media accounts used to disseminate news rapidly and exclusively. Rather, it fundamentally involves recognizing that governments around the world are no longer the sole actors engaged in international relations and shaping international relations. Technological advancements have blurred the boundaries between the domestic and the international spheres, creating opportunities for new actors in this field through citizen journalism, civil society organizations, and non-governmental organizations. All these entities now interact directly and dinamically with global audiences, making their influence impossible to overlook. Consequently, engaging with them professionally through the instruments of public diplomacy has become essential for states seeking to project an accurate and positive image abroad. Such engagement also enables governments to

explain, communicate, and justify their fundamental values and policies to foreign publics in a clear, coherent, and persuasive manner, thereby fostering greater understanding and acceptance13.

International practice regarding digital diplomacy has highlighted numerous advantages and disadvantages, which will be address as follows: II.1. Advantages of Digital Diplomacy: - The two-way communicative nature of social media has become the fundamental feature distinguishing digital diplomacy from traditional public diplomacy or the diplomacy of the twentieth century, relied primarily on conventional mass media. Digital communication tools have transformed public diplomacy from a top-down, one way communication model from official sources to the public, into a horizontal, interactive model that enables the public to participate in discussions, evaluate events, and even influence decision-making processes rather than merely serving as recipients of official messages. - Digital diplomacy has reinforced the principle of transparency by facilitating broader access to information and enabling its rapid dissemination to the public, thereby reducing the exclusive control traditionally exercised by government officials over the flow of information. - It has enhanced the effectiveness of consular services, particularly during emergencies and natural disasters, by allowing governments to establish rapid communication channels with their citizens abroad. In addition, it contributes to the anticipation of emerging social and political movements and the swift response to them via social media platforms14. - Cyber applications have significantly improved the processing and analysis of large volumes of data quickly, efficiency, and lower cost. These technologies generate interpretable quantitative analyses that assist in analytical processes, build future forecasts, and ultimately help in presenting suitable alternatives and options, thereby enhancing the formulation and implementation of foreign policy decisions15. II.2. Disadvantages of Digital Diplomacy - One of the principal limitations of digital diplomacy is the absence of a legal framework governing and protecting its practice. Likewise, the lack of established diplomatic norms and customs capable of regulating digital interactions has become increasingly problematic, particularly with the emergence of non-state actors as influential participants in diplomatic activities. This development has significantly altered the dynamics of contemporary international relations16. - Another major challenge is the limited digital competence of some diplomats. Inadequate training and insufficient familiarity with digital technologies may lead to the inappropriate or ineffective use of digital diplomacy tools. Especially since the entire world monitors posts, tweets, videos, and reactions, which, once published, cannot be retracted. This includes inappropriate comments or sharing private information online that could cause embarrassment to them, their institution, or their country17. - Technology has also dramatically accelerated the pace at which diplomatic functions are performed. Over the course of two centuries, diplomatic communication has evolved from messages carried between capitals by horseback or camel to instantaneous communication through telephones and the Internet. Today, virtually every diplomat carries a mobile communication device, enabling continuous and immediate interaction18. - The risks associated with digital diplomacy have expanded considerably in recent years. tices have begun to pose significant challenges to digital technologies have increasingly been employed strategically by both governments and non-state actors as instruments for

spreading disinformation and propaganda in pursuit of political and strategic objectives. As a result, these prace stability of the international order. A notable example is the 2016 United States presidential election, during which more than 150 million Americans were reportedly exposed to a Russian disinformation campaign. According to a report issued by the United States Senate, the campaign utilized all major social media platforms to disseminate carefully targeted messages, images, and videos intended to influence voter behavior, support the election of President Donald Trump, and subsequently reinforce public support for his administration19. B) Tools and Objectives of Digital Diplomacy Today, e-diplomacy has become one of the fundamental elements of a state's foreign policy. The historical evolution of diplomatic practice demonstrates that every era or historical phase is characterized by its own diplomatic tools and methods. In this regard, the modern era is marked by rapid innovations and advancements, particularly in the field of ICT, has profoundly transformed the conduct of diplomatic practices. Advances in ICT have facilitated the transition from traditional public diplomacy to digital diplomacy, as the latter relies on a wide range of tools to foster interaction among political entities and to enhance communication with domestic and international audiences. Therefore, the following part examines the principal tools of digital diplomacy and the objectives they are intended to achieve.

The main actors in contemporary international relations and diplomacy in this era heavily rely on various tools that have emerged from advancements in information and communication technology. As such, they have centered their diplomatic activities around these tools. The following are among the most important tools of digital diplomacy. I.1. Virtual Embassies Virtual embassies are diplomatic representations that exist in cyberspace rather than as physical diplomatic missions. They constitute a form of diplomatic representation for countries that wish to establish a diplomatic presence in nations where they do not have a real embassy, or where there are no official diplomatic relations between the two countries, such as in some cases between Iran and the USA. These virtual embassies are sometimes created to complement existing embassies in the real world. The Maldives was the first country to open a virtual embassy in 2007, followed by Sweden, Denmark, and other countries. Today, an increasing number of states are exploring the establishment of virtual embassies as part of their broader digital diplomacy strategies20. I.2. Social Media Andreas Kaplan and Michael Haenlein defined social media as: “a group of internet-based applications built on Web 2.0 technology that allow users to create and exchange user-generated content”. In other words, these are applications that enable users to create personal profiles, connect with friends and acquaintances, communicate through private messages, and interact by sharing comments, photographs, videos, and audio content21. The interest in the role of social media networks has increased considerably as its role has evolved beyond serving merely as a platform for social interaction, networking, and public visibility for media organizations and think tanks, relying on the significant connectivity they provide between audiences, to networks exploited by users for political work and beyond22. In light of the above, it is clear that social media platforms have become one of the most prominent and influential tools of e-diplomacy at both the domestic and international levels, through

the speed of communication and information dissemination. This has been evidenced by numerous international issues, such as the Arab Spring revolutions, during which these platforms played a crucial role in raising public awareness and disseminating information about unfolding events. Likewise, many governments have also utilized them as an instrument of foreign policy to shape public opinion, strengthen support for their diplomatic positions, and advance their national interests. I.3. Websites The Internet should not be viewed merely as a digital technology; rather, it is a network of interactions and economic and social relationships. It has demonstrated capabilities that contribute to empowering human rights, assisting individuals and communities, and facilitating sustainable development. At the same time, it has introduced new challenges to established norms in ways that can positively or negatively affect economic, social, and developmental outcomes. Integrating Internet-related matters into public policy influences various issues such as equality, collective participation, media, journalism, cultural diversity, quality education for all, and the protection of human rights23. I.4. Blogs Blogs are web-based platforms that allow users to update them seamlessly, making it easier for readers to comment on published posts, archive articles and discussions, and access them at any time. As a result, they have become an important means of communication within contemporary societies. Most organizations have incorporated blogs to enhance their presence on other platforms, with the aim of showcasing their activities and introducing their members. Owing to their technical simplicity and accessibility, blogs have also become valuable tools for a variety of purposes in the field of foreign relations. The Japanese government has effectively utilized blogs by targeting specific audiences, namely children. For instance, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan developed blog content incorporating interactive electronic games featuring cultural themes such as ninjas and samurai warriors. These initiatives aim to foster children's appreciation of Japan's historical and cultural heritage while enhancing their understanding of Japan's regional and global significance. Similarly, the United Kingdom's Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) has developed official blogs, where citizens' opinions blend with the personal impressions of diplomats, resulting in comprehensive conclusions24. I.5. Other Digital Tools In addition to what has been mentioned, diplomats employ a wide range of digital technologies in the conduct of diplomatic activities, many of which cannot be examined exhaustively within the scope of this study. There are also other tools that could potentially be useful for daily diplomatic activities, but have not yet been fully utilized. The number and diversity of these tools continue to expand alongside the rapid advancement of (ICT) and digital applications25. In light of the foregoing, it can be concluded that diplomacy in the digital age is fundamentally based on new tools and methods for conducting diplomacy with the help of the internet and ICT. The influence of these technologies extends beyond the modernization of diplomatic methods to reshape the very nature of contemporary diplomacy, including the emergence of new actors, new instruments, and new processes in international relations. Several related concepts have consequently emerged alongside digital diplomacy. These include cyber diplomacy, which primarily addresses cybersecurity and cyber-related issues; science and technology diplomacy, which focuses on international cooperation in science, technology, and innovation; data diplomacy, which examines the use and impact of big data in diplomacy and international affairs; and digital trade diplomacy,

which concerns the economic and commercial dimensions of digital technologies and electronic commerce26.

The principal objectives of digital diplomacy include the following: II.1. Knowledge Management To harness institutional and governmental knowledge by preserving, sharing, and utilizing it effectively in support of a state's foreign policy objectives and the protection of its national interests abroad. II.2. Public Diplomacy Maintaining communication with audiences as they transition in the digital environment by leveraging modern communication technologies to listen to public concerns, disseminate key messages, and influence opinion leaders through online platforms. II.3. Information Management To collect, organize, and analyze the vast flow of digital information in order to improve policymaking, anticipate emerging social and political developments, and facilitate timely and informed responses. II.4. Communication and Consular Response Establishing direct and reliable communication channels with citizens traveling abroad, with manageable communications in crisis situations27. II.5. Interagency Coordination Coordination among all state departments to optimally manage their various resources related to achieving national interests abroad and enhancing soft power. II.6. Public Engagement in the Digital Sphere Maintaining communication with audiences in the virtual world through new communication tools to listen to, engage with, and influence them using the state’s key messages online, as well as leveraging the massive flow of information to improve the policy-making process and assist in anticipating and responding to emerging social and political movements. II.7. Digital Mechanisms for External Cooperation Creating digital mechanisms to leverage the experiences and resources of embassies and consulates to advance national objectives28. Section II. The Role of Digital Diplomacy in Achieving Countries' Foreign Policy Objectives The twenty-first century has witnessed remarkable advances in ICT, which have had a profound impact on various political, legal, and economic field. These developments have also greatly influenced the concept of diplomacy, contributing to a shift from traditional public diplomacy to digital diplomacy. As a result, advances in ICT, have fundamentally changed the way diplomacy is conducted and the manner in which states interact with one another. Consequently, digital diplomacy has emerged as a key instrument through which states pursue and advance the objectives of their foreign policy. Accordingly, this section examines the international landscape of digital diplomacy. It then analyzes the impact of digital diplomacy on the formulation of foreign policy and explores the

mechanisms through which it can be effectively implemented to achieve states' foreign policy objectives. A) The International Landscape of Digital Diplomacy Today, e-diplomacy has become a primary tool for interaction within the framework of international relations and diplomacy. It reflects the significant changes brought about by major developments in ICT, which have reshaped the ways in which states interact with one another, engage with their citizens, and communicate with international public opinion. Consequently, countries have recognized the importance of digital diplomacy and the necessity of training their diplomats to use it to shape their relationships with foreign audiences, leveraging it to serve their national interests and achieve their foreign policy goals. This will be further elaborated upon in the following sections:

Digital diplomacy has become a fundamental component of foreign policies of contemporary states. At present, both governmental and non-governmental entities compete for influence and authority within the same space, where cyberspace has evolved into a major arena for international engagement. At present, the online environment hosts more than three billion users, many of whom access the Internet primarily through mobile devices. When used correctly, digital diplomacy serves as a compelling and timely complement to traditional diplomacy, helping a country achieve its foreign policy goals, expand international outreach, and influence individuals who may never set foot in any embassy around the world29. Successive reports have consistenly emphasize the growing interest in digital platforms by world leaders and governments across the globe, alongside increasing follower counts and interaction levels. This makes these platforms a vital source for obtaining the latest news and data, as well as influencing global public opinion in ways that serve the foreign policy interests of nations. The 2016 Public Diplomacy State Report revealed that the most advanced major countries in technology and economy ranked at the top of the report's classification, with the United Kingdom taking first place, followed by France30. Several Arab countries have also embraced more to digital diplomacy. In this regard, the UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, in collaboration with the Ministry of Culture and Knowledge Development, launched the Digital Cultural Diplomacy Initiative, the first of its kind in the region. This initiative aims to showcase the most significant success stories and Emirati innovations, as well as cultural landmarks and artistic heritage, covering fields as audiovisual arts, performing arts, creative industries, music, and architecture. Additionally, it highlights a group of prominent Emirati figures who have made outstanding contributions to the service of the UAE or have achieved tangible accomplishments in various political, cultural, economic, sports, and social fields31. In light of the foregoing, it is evident that countries have recognized the importance of digital diplomacy and the necessity of equipping their diplomats with the skills required to use digital technologies effectively. By doing so, they seek to strengthen their soft power, enhance their engagement with domestic and international audiences, and capitalize on the advantages offered by the digital environment in support of their foreign policy objectives. The speed of information dissemination, relatively low operational costs, and broad global reach have made digital diplomacy an increasingly effective instrument of international influence. However, digital diplomacy extends far beyond the mere use of social media platforms by diplomats to communicate with the public. Although such engagement plays an important role in clarifying state policies, explaining official positions on international issues, and fostering public understanding and support, the broader objective of digital diplomacy is to deepen states' influence over public opinion and shape societal

attitudes toward a wide range of political and international issues. Accordingly, many states have expanded their digital diplomatic activities with the aim of increasing their presence within digital spaces and influencing public perceptions in ways that advance their strategic interests. In particular, major powers have increasingly employed their technological capabilities and digital communication resources to promote values, ideas, and narratives that align with their geopolitical objectives and broader foreign policy agendas32.

The digital revolution continues to expand at an unprecedented pace, reshaping the landscape of international relations and compelling diplomacy to evolve in parallel with rapid technological advances. Consequently, foreign policy is no longer conducted in the same manner as it was during the twentieth century. Instead, it has undergone a significant transformation, adopting innovative approaches to communication, governance, and interstate relations that reflect the realities of the digital age. With the emergence of digital diplomacy at the beginning of the twenty-first century, advances in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) have provided states with new opportunities to employ the Internet and modern communication technologies as instruments for engaging foreign audiences and creating a favorable environment for the implementation of their foreign policy objectives. E-diplomacy relies on digital platforms that serve as a new nervous system for the world, facilitating immediate communication with online communities that represent an increasingly significant political force in the foreign policy-making processes in their respective countries33. Dr. Ahmed Al-Khawali, an expert in international relations, points out that digital diplomacy is not limited to facilitating international communications; it also extends to enhancing the national image and influencing global public opinion. Moreover, digital diplomacy allows for more inclusive participation from non-state actors and international organizations, thereby fostering global dialogue and understanding. Countries are working on developing strategies to promote their digital diplomatic capabilities, such as training diplomats to effectively use digital tools and establishing specialized units within foreign ministries to manage digital campaigns. These efforts aim to achieve a better position on the international stage and to strengthen the diplomatic influence of states worldwide34. Researchers have sought to examine the impact that these forms of digital connectivity can have on international relations in practice. A notable example occurred on 25 May 2015, when the United States Department of State (@StateDept) followed the Cuban Ministry of Foreign Affairs (@CubaMINREX) on Twitter. Later that same day, Cuba reciprocated by following the U.S. account. This symbolic act of digital engagement took place approximately two months before the two countries officially resumed diplomatic relations, illustrating how online interaction can precede and facilitate diplomatic rapprochement. Current diplomatic practices confirmed the increasing interaction of foreign ministries and diplomats on this platform. On January 28, 2017, the Israeli Prime Minister tweeted praising U.S. President Donald Trump's initiative to build a wall with Mexico, considering it a great idea to curb illegal immigration. Shortly thereafter, Mexico publicly demanded an apology for his statement. On February 20, 2017, the Swedish embassy in America responded to Trump’s tweet regarding an alleged terrorist attack in Sweden35. Furthermore, the impact of digital spaces has become notably significant on sovereign authorities worldwide, prompting many countries to develop specific legislation to address security challenges, privacy issues, and the political ramifications of internet use. These laws aim to enhance cybersecurity, protect citizens' data, and ensure public order36.

What is more, the foreign policy and international relations of countries around the world and international organizations have been affected by the repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to the adoption of digital diplomacy. In this context, the global magazine Foreign Policy highlighted the difficulties faced by diplomatic work during the pandemic and acknowledged that the Security Council spent a week in intensive deliberations regarding protocols that require formal procedures, despite the member states' agreement on mechanisms for holding remote meetings. Furthermore, electronic meetings did not play a significant role in breaking the political deadlock that hindered consensus among the five member states37. In light of the above, it is clear that the digital space has impacted the external environment of foreign policies and influenced the patterns of response to these interactions, fostering a global consciousness across nations. New issues have emerged on the international agenda, such as human security concerns. The digital space has facilitated interactions between images of the 'other' and images of the 'self' as independent variables affecting foreign policy decision-making. Images play a crucial role in helping policymakers organize their perceptions and knowledge about the world, while also negatively influencing the decision-making process38. B) The Impact of Digital Diplomacy on Foreign Policymaking and the Mechanisms for Its Effective Implementation The foreign policy of states and diplomatic practice have undergone significant transformations, as modern ICT have been integrated to achieve strategic objectives and national interests. Various digital tools and mechanisms have been harnessed in the practice of diplomatic activities and in the formulation and implementation of foreign policies. However, the use of digital space tools in diplomatic activities has faced numerous challenges, necessitating reforms and the establishment of mechanisms for their activation. The following part will address the impact of digital diplomacy on the formulation and implementation of foreign policy, before discussing the mechanisms required to strengthen and optimize its effectiveness.

Assessing the impact of digital diplomacy on the formulation and implementation of foreign policy first requires an examination of the principal international domains in which digital diplomacy operates. Identifying these domains provides a clearer understanding of how digital diplomacy influences foreign policymaking, supports diplomatic practice, and contributes to the achievement of states' strategic objectives. The following examines these key areas in greater detail. I.1. International Domains of Digital Diplomacy The principal international domains in which digital diplomacy operates include the following: - International Crises and Conflicts The peaceful settlement of international disputes is closely linked to the preservation of international peace and security. These principles are mutually reinforcing, as lasting peace cannot be achieved without effective mechanisms for resolving disputes through peaceful means rather than through the use of force. Recognizing the importance of this principle, the Charter of the United Nations establishes the obligation of states to settle international disputes by peaceful means under Article 2(3). Furthermore, Chapter VI of the Charter (Articles 33–38) is specifically devoted to the peaceful settlement of disputes39. International crises and conflicts are among the main topics of diplomatic work, where international diplomatic efforts intensify and collaborate to manage and resolve them. This makes digital diplomacy play a central role in carrying out its communication tasks and activating its tools

and means of communication to create a suitable environment during an international crisis or conflict. By directing international public opinion through the use of digital diplomacy tools, governments can give communication different dimensions. This requires advanced planning stages from the management of digital diplomacy to define priorities that organize the communication management of messages directed to governments and their peoples, and to achieve preventive measures or exert diplomatic pressure to manage the crisis40. - Promoting International Cooperation and Strengthening International Relations Until recently, the state was considered the main actor in international relations. However, this is no longer the case. While it is true that the state is a primary actor in international relations, it is not the only one. In addition to states, there are global and regional international organizations, specialized international agencies, as well as non-governmental organizations, national liberation movements, multinational corporations, and other transnational entities41. Within this evolving international environment, digital diplomacy, as a feature of the postmodern diplomatic landscape, enhances the capacity of states to pursue their foreign policy objectives more efficiently and effectively. It greatly assists in promoting the foreign policy objectives of states, opens new horizons for international consensus, and influences individuals who have never set foot in any of the world's embassies. The direct public interaction and participation of non-governmental actors lead countries to use social media and digital diplomacy as a means to maintain legitimacy and develop or enhance international relations in a changing world42. - Shaping International Public Opinion In democratic societies, governments are generally understood to exist to serve the interests of the people rather than the reverse. Consequently, public opinion constitutes an essential element of political life and increasingly influences the formulation and implementation of foreign policy43. International public opinion has become a significant force in shaping both domestic and international political phenomena, if not embodying their effectiveness. This opinion has managed to become a pressing force that influences foreign policy both locally and internationally44. The essence is that public opinion must contribute to the formation of foreign policies on important and major issues, with the exception of matters that, if known to the public, could conflict with the supreme interests of the nation, such as armament and most or all military requirements and necessities45. Diplomacy enables governments to communicate directly and indirectly with foreign audiences through modern channels such as digital media, international organizations, conferences, and networks of academics, cultural figures, and religious leaders. These channels contribute to the formation of international public opinion through persuasion, dialogue, and public engagement46. The expansion of digital diplomacy into civil society and broader public audiences also reflects the concept of soft power, developed by Joseph S. Nye Jr. in his influential work Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. This concept relies on the importance of culture, human values, and creative ideas in influencing others, in clear contrast to "hard power," which primarily relies on coercion and pressure at various military, economic, and diplomatic levels. Joseph Nye considers that the victor in this information age is the one who controls the topography of the public sphere by "winning their narrative and recounting events and facts," "setting the political agenda," "imposing communication strategies," and "subtly attracting others to the model and political project without any tangible public evidence"47.

- Managing Commercial Diplomacy and International Marketing Trade diplomacy primarily involves monitoring trade partners regarding their compliance with trade agreements and laws between two or more countries. This requires diplomats to represent their national interests in the event of violations, disputes, or issues related to the interpretation of previously agreed-upon laws. Furthermore, there is significant scope for studying and examining activities and reaching a compromise between the participating national interests while negotiating with foreign counterparts in the region where trade negotiation rounds took place, particularly under the auspices of the GATT and the World Trade Organization. Another aspect of trade diplomacy is the promotion of exports and trade relations48. International marketing, in turn, encompasses a set of integrated activities and efforts that lead to the flow and direction of goods, services, and ideas are introduced into foreign markets in order to satisfy the needs and preferences of consumers through mutually beneficial exchange. This process is conducted within an administrative and social framework while taking into account the broader economic, political, and cultural environment49. Based on the definition of international marketing, effective international marketing generally includes the following activities:  Conducting research on existing and prospective international markets.  Planning and developing desirable and demanded products and services that meet the needs of consumers and users in foreign markets.  Distributing goods and services through appropriate international distribution channels.  Promotion of products.  Determining various pricing methods that reflect consumer value while ensuring profit returns for companies.  Providing technical and non-technical pre-sale and post-sale services to enhance customer satisfaction50. E-diplomacy relies on utilizing influential tools in this field through global figures to foster a sense of community integration between these tools and the audience as a means to achieve marketing objectives and ensure the establishment of the desired mental image among the public. It does not stop at this point; it also seeks to implement sophisticated marketing strategies, including opening communication channels to achieve individual behavioral motivations by shaping psychological and emotional attitudes. Furthermore, it may resort to employing brands as a means of achieving persuasion in crafting its communication message, and this type of employment requires significant skill in managing diplomacy. In this respect, interactive digital platforms have become indispensable instruments for achieving both diplomatic and commercial objectives51. I.2. The Impact of Digital Diplomacy on the Formulation and Implementation of Foreign Policy At the international and global level, the manifestations of the digital revolution have gained significance from both political and security perspectives, whether for major powers or for those seeking to play advanced roles. This is evident in the redefinition of many concepts and the emergence of new forms of interaction, both cooperative and conflictual, in contrast to the previous assumption that the rate and direction of technological change occur randomly52. Diplomacy is the political, legal, and peaceful means employed by subjects of public international law to implement foreign policy and manage relationships and connections among themselves in various fields. Additionally, it serves as an important tool for enhancing the relationship between the two legal systems: international and domestic. While diplomacy is the instrument for executing foreign policy53 , the diplomat is the one who carries out the plan drawn up by the political

leader of the state during peacetime. However, this does not imply that diplomacy, in its execution of foreign policy, does not resort to some form of political conflict or its effects54. Furthermore, digital diplomacy enhances coordination among governmental institutions, diplomatic missions, and international organizations, thereby improving the consistency and effectiveness of foreign policy implementation. At the same time, it allows states to employ soft power more efficiently by promoting their culture, values, and policy narratives to international audiences while countering misinformation and safeguarding their international reputation. Foreign policy has become, in one of its essential dimensions, a struggle between competing strategic narratives through which states seek to expand their influence at both the regional and international levels. Consequently, the foreign policies of states compete with one another for the interpretive framework of regional and international issues. The digital environment has significantly transformed the traditional functions of diplomats. It has enhanced their ability to collect, analyze, and transmit information to their governments while enabling them to monitor developments more effectively, both within their own countries and in the states to which they are accredited. Moreover, digital technologies have created new opportunities for diplomats to participate in distance learning and online professional training, thereby strengthening their academic, technical, and linguistic competencies. In addition, the digital age has facilitated the establishment of virtual embassies in regions where a physical diplomatic presence is limited or absent, by developing websites created by the foreign ministries of the relevant countries, offering extensive, live, and advanced services55. The most significant effects of digital diplomacy on foreign policy making are manifested in the following areas: - Delivery Services: The internet impacts the services provided by diplomats and foreign ministries, as well as local administrations and private institutions. It has undermined the traditional distribution of diplomatic work, facilitated access to information, and prompted foreign ministries and embassies to offer services online. - Ideas: Ideas and values are crucial in shaping foreign policy and fall within what Joseph Nye refers to as "soft power." The traditional diplomatic approach to discussing an issue relied on delivering a ministerial speech, publishing a pamphlet, or conveying key messages through radio, television, and print media. Today, these speeches are published on official websites, making them directly accessible to anyone interested. The number of blogs and interactive forums has increased, where political discussions are conducted with the involvement of experts rather than just ministers and officials56. - Networks: Establishing appropriate networks as discussion spaces involving stakeholders and opinion makers is essential for discussing domestic policy and exerting influence on foreign policy. Networks allow diplomats not only to gather reliable information for making sound decisions but also to explore ways to maximize their influence57. In conclusion, digital diplomacy has become an increasingly important and influential instrument in the formulation and implementation of states' foreign policies. Through its diverse digital tools, governments are able to communicate directly with domestic and international audiences, explain the content of their foreign policies, clarify their objectives and underlying rationales, and promote a better understanding of their positions on international issues. Moreover, digital diplomacy enables states to defend and promote their foreign policy when confronted with criticism or competing narratives advanced by other states or groups of states. In situations where a country's policies are challenged through media campaigns or attempts to undermine its international reputation, digital diplomatic tools provide an effective means of presenting official perspectives, countering

misinformation, shaping international public opinion, and safeguarding the state's image and strategic interests. Consequently, digital diplomacy has become an indispensable component of contemporary foreign policy, strengthening both a state's international influence and its capacity to advance and protect its national interests in the digital age.

The information revolution has become an undeniable reality of the modern era, driven by the rapid pace of technological advancement. As digital transformation continues to reshape international relations, states must adapt to these changes to remain effective in the global arena58. Accordingly, enhancing digital diplomacy requires the following: - Integrating technology with administrative activities. - Funding technology development programs in various diplomatic positions. - Establishing a technology center and cooperating with embassies abroad. - Working on adopting special funding for technological innovation and utilizing electronic administrative programs. - Expanding the sharing of information and knowledge. - Establishing an expanded system for managing relationships. - Improving research and retrieval capabilities for digital resources and expanding their use for satellite-conducted conferences. - Adopting new communication tools such as live electronic discussion forums and internet video services, which change the way people interact across the world59. - Establishing digital mechanisms to leverage external expertise and resources ("embassies and consulates") and harness them to advance national objectives60. - Information Level: This refers to the enumeration of individuals aware of the information provided within the ongoing evaluation of digital diplomatic activities, such as counting the number of official accounts and starting to tally the number of subscribers across various social networks. Here, the measurement is subject to different criteria, including government entities, non-governmental organizations, and the number of subscribers/accounts across various social media platforms, where the method of calculating posts, subscribers, and followers varies to arrive at an average value61. - Online Education for Diplomats: Online learning refers to education using information and communication technology tools. The Diplo Foundation is dedicated to enhancing diplomats' skills through regular training and education on common issues in international affairs. This goal is often achieved through flexible online courses, blogs, webinars, and some courses taught directly in face-to-face settings. The foundation provides opportunities for foreign ministries to enroll their diplomats in some of their online courses. These courses are easily accessible to practitioners whether they are in their home country or serving abroad. The Diplo Foundation designs courses specifically tailored for foreign ministries upon request62. - Level of Influence: Influence refers to the existence of a specific political goal that must be achieved by affecting the public. However, there is significant difficulty in determining the effectiveness of this influence. It can be assessed through:  Engaging international audiences: This requires conducting regular long-term public opinion surveys, identifying target audiences, and allocating resources effectively to maximize the impact of digital diplomacy initiatives.  Evaluating external partners: Governments should assess the performance of external organizations and experts engaged to support diplomatic campaigns and other digital diplomacy activities.  Strengthening digital diplomacy programmes: Encouraging academic research, publications, and university courses on digital diplomacy is essential for measuring,

evaluating, and enhancing the institutionalization and effectiveness of digital diplomacy practices.  Judging through a specific public opinion influence campaign by measuring everything or nothing, meaning whether there was acceptance from the people or not. A quantitative assessment cannot be provided, but it can be understood through a clear and coherent overall context.  Surveys that coincide with the beginning and end of the campaign.  The amount spent on the campaign63.

Digital diplomacy has become a key tool in shaping and achieving the foreign policy objectives of countries. This has been demonstrated by international practice, as many countries and international organizations have turned to digital space tools to conduct diplomatic activities. This is particularly true for the United States, which is a leading country in utilizing digital diplomacy tools in its diplomatic practice. This trend was especially evident during the return of President Donald Trump, who was elected for a second term after winning the presidential elections in late 2024. He was known for posting numerous tweets on digital communication platforms during his first term in 2017, which had a significant impact on international relations and diplomacy. He also shared many tweets on the X platform (formerly Twitter), which greatly influenced American foreign policy and various international issues, especially the Palestinian cause and the Russia-Ukraine war. Results: 1. Digital diplomacy represents a radical shift in the field of diplomatic work, which countries resort to in order to achieve their foreign policy goals and enhance their international standing in a more transparent and inclusive manner. 2. Digital diplomacy has become a powerful tool in enhancing the effectiveness of diplomatic work, due to its reliance on the communicative activities that countries engage in through various internet sites and social media platforms in their interactions with other countries and communication with the public. 3. The organized, intelligent, and responsible use of digital diplomacy tools by states and diplomatic personnel leads to ensuring their success and sustainability, thereby achieving the foreign policy objectives of the state. 4. Despite the advantages of digital diplomacy, it faces numerous challenges, 5. Despite the advantages of digital diplomacy, it faces numerous challenges, primarily the lack of legal frameworks and cybersecurity issues, along with the inefficiency of diplomatic personnel in utilizing digital diplomacy tools. Recommendations: 1. States should invest in developing digital diplomacy strategies more effectively, which will enhance their position in the international system, in line with various changes and developments in the field of information and communication technology. 2. All states must work on establishing a legal framework to manage and ensure the security of digital diplomatic activities by concluding an international agreement concerning this matter. 3. It is essential to find and develop effective mechanisms to protect diplomatic work from crimes that may arise due to reliance on electronic communication tools, remote conferencing, and the exchange of correspondence via electronic media.

Citations: 1 Ali Youssef Al-Shukri, Diplomacy in a Changing World, Dar Al-Sadiq Cultural Foundation and Dar Al-Ridwan for Publishing and Distribution, Iraq, 2011 pp 12, 13. 2 Ali Hussein Al-Shami , Diplomacy: Its Origins, Development, Rules, and the System of Diplomatic Immunities and Privileges, 3rd edition, Dar Al-Thaqafa for Publishing and Distribution, Amman, 2007 p 28.

27 Khaled Obaid Jazea, The Role of Digital Diplomacy in Enhancing the International Dominance of the United States after 2001, a thesis submitted for the Master's degree, College of Political Science, University of Baghdad, 2021, p 06. 28 Aisha Bouachiba and Khira Wafi, Digital Diplomacy and the Construction of Mental Images through Social Media: A Study of Some Global Experiences, Algerian Journal of Human and Social Sciences, Volume 03, Issue 02, December 2019, pp 28, 29.

52 Abdul Qadir Dandan and others, Op. Cit, p 28. 53 Adnan Abdullah Rashid, The Role of Contemporary Diplomacy in Strengthening the Relationship Between Public International Law and Constitutional Law: A Foundational - Analytical - Comparative Study, Arab Center for Publishing and Distribution, Egypt, First Edition, 2017, p 01. 54 Ahmed Nuri Al-Nuaimi, The Decision-Making Process in Foreign Policy, Dar Zahran, Amman, First Edition, 2011, p 59.

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